Coursework Ideas Homework:

Idea 1) The difference in language use dependant on age- it's an interesting investigation because age is something that we all progress through, and perhaps our language use will change in time to come in comparison to future youth? My current ideas on age are that older people tend to converge closer to the RP accent and use more standard English, in comparison to the language use of young people - who often use colloquialisms, and diverge away from RP to express their individualism. Young people tend to like to use slang and ''alternate" words to avoid their conversation being heard and understood by others, whereas older people tell it how it is. Older people tend to talk for a purpose, to get something across, whereas young people often talk for the sake of it, or if they need something, the audience is often people of the same age group, although the attitude taken is different, the older community take what they're saying seriously and use language to get their opinion across, young people tend to take the opposite approach. The subject which is being spoken about will be very different due to the generational gap, the older generation would often talk about: routine, hobbies, shopping, surroundings, weather etc., in contrast to youth, who talk about pop culture, music, friends, events, life situations, love etc.

-Reference face theory, cooperative principle and politeness theory.

Idea 2) The difference between the way in which men and women use language. It's weird to think that language varies dependant on gender, you'd assume that everybody uses the same structure when talking, uses the same linguistic features.. evidently not. I think that women use more fillers when talking (often because they're gossiping) and subject change a lot more, females also are more inclined to use standard English, in comparison to men who are 'lazier' when using language and use more non-standard English, they tend to use less fillers but use hedging a lot more, I'd say that men use deixis more than women in attempt to hide what they're talking about.. but maybe that'll come in during my investigation? Women often use language to communicate whatever they're thinking, whereas men often use language to communicate their needs / desires. The audience could be males or females, probably around the same age. The attitude for women is often optimistic and enthusiastic about what they're saying, men are more passive. The subject varies a lot dependant on gender, as women are more inclined to talk about love, relationships, friends, current affairs, shopping, hobbies etc. Men are more inclined to talk about sports, hobbies, work, computer games etc.

Leet.

• Leet ( or 1337 ) is the form of communication used by computer hackers.
• Leet is an alternative English alphabet which is made up of mostly symbols which resemble each letter, e.g, [ for C. 
• It is most commonly used online. 
• It originated in the 1980's by computer hackers to avoid instant recognition. 
• It has since spread and is used by gamers, in forums among other things. 
• It is most commonly used in usernames, often to express individuality.
• Most common on forums, chat rooms and online games.
• Leet comes from the world 'elite' which means 'better than everyone else'
• Leet is mostly used in English but can also be used in French, Spanish or German.
• Leetspeak is a mixture of words (often computer related) and are often spelt incorrectly e.g t3h instead of 'the'. 
• NOTE: That only vowels are changed into numbers, so people wouldn't spell words completely in leet. 

nn&¬!$$4  < my name in leet. :)

 Vocabulary:  

• bai --- bye
• carp --- crap
• ceak --- cake
• nd --- and
• d00d --- dude
• form --- from
• guise --- guys

Features of language:

Lexis & semantics featues:

• Tone / register.
• Personification.
• List.
• Collocation (a group of words that go together e.g. the cold hard light of day.)
• Synonyms.
• Antonyms.
• Connotations.
• Negatives.
• List of 3. 
• 
  
  Phonology:
• Alliteration.
• Rhythm
• Pauses. 
• Repetition.
  
  
  Grammar- word classes:
• Adjectives.
• Superlatives.
• Modal auxiliary verb.
• Stative verbs.
• Adverbial phrase.
• Abstract nouns.
• Adverbs of time / manner / place / duration.
• Attributive / predicative adjectives.
  
  Grammar - syntax:
• Declarative sentences.
• Minor sentence.
• Simple sentence.
• Complex sentence.
• Adverbial clause of time.

Standard vs non-standard.

-Standard English dialect is called Standard English (SE).

-Standard English accent is received pronounciation.

Everything else is non-standard not incorrect.

Forms of language variation:

Phonological (sound): Differences in pronounciation, often focused on particular phonemes, for example, the glottal stop as a replacement for the /t/ sound.

Lexical (vocabulary /words): Alternative and additional words within a particular variety e.g, 'mush' instead of friend.

Semantic (meaning): Changes of meaning to standard English e.g weed / stoned.


Grammatical (syntax): The use of unusual syntax patterns or different grammar rules to standard English. e.g, double negation.


Orthographical (spelling): Mainly spoken, use of a wider range of characters in a socialect like 'Leet'.
 

Language change and variation:

Language use is dependant on many factors.

Age: Young people speak more colloquially, older people tend to use standard English and their accent tends to reflect RP more than the younger generation, the older generation like to use language 'properly' compared to the younger generation who tend to shorten words,e.g. 'ain't'.

Sexuality: Tend to use more terms on endearment, e.g - love, honey, darling. 

Gender: Women talk more, use more fillers, subject change a lot more. Men tend to use more non-standard English.

Social class: Higher class speak closer to received pronounciation-more inclined to use standard English.

Ethnicity: Ethnic background alters phrases used, dialect and pronounciation.

Deviance: Colloquial, often more lower class, non standard, code words, jargon, alternative word use - like another language to disguise what is being said. 

Occupation: Jargon, job related speech - particularly by medical professionals. 

Region: Accent & dialect.

Hobbies: Jargon.

What to take note of from the creative writing piece:

1) Realise that language was sophisticated before dictonaries.
2) The purpose of dictionaries wa to show that there is a right way to spell and words that were in the dictonary were seen to be 'better.'

Check him out on Youtube.

David Crystal.

26/09/2011 - Coursework:

Language intervention. 

1) You have to intervene in a language debate,

2) You have to make it accessible to a non-specialist audience.

This coursework is 1200 words and is expected to be of 'publishable quality'. It counts for 20% of your grade.

The language investigation is 2500 words and is based on analysis of spoken language, again 20%.

Revision test:

Name the 4 types of nouns:
Abstract - e.g., love.
Concrete - e.g., table.
Proper - e.g., England.
Collective - e.g., herd.

Use 'blue' as an attributive & predicative noun.
1) The blue sky. (attributive)
2) The sky is blue. (predicative.)

Add 2 adverbs of manner to the sentence: she ran the race.
She deliberately ran the race quickly.
 

Write these adjectives in their comparative forms:
Bright = brighter.
Fast = faster.
Expensive = more expensive.
Slowly = more slowly.

The present participle of the verb 'to shop'.

shopping.

The past participle of 'to freeze'.

Frozen.

Why are participles so versatile?

Because they can be used as verbs, adjectives and nouns.

What is the difference between the 'simple past tense' and the 'perfect present' tense?

The simple past tense shows a completed action, when using the perfect present tense, there's an implication that the action may not be completed. 

Epistemic and Deontic modal auxiliaries:

Epistemic auxiliaries show a level of certainty, e.g., may, might, could.

Deontic auxiliaries show permission or obligation, e.g., should, can. 

What I found most interesting about the different sorts of dictionaries

The thing that I found most interesting is the development of dictionaries over time and the influence they have had on the use of the English language, I dread to think about how people would communicate now if it wasn't for the development of the language and sophistication of dictionaries. 

I think without dictionaries, language use would probably resemble the origins of English, the old English, the uncomprehensible English - it wouldn't be as rich as it is now, that's for sure.

I need to learn more about the history of dictionaries as I don't think I've researched enough but language change is definitely an interesting thing to study. 

For the prescriptivism vs descriptivism homework post, look below. :)

Descriptivists v Prescriptivists.

A prescriptivist (a person who creates or encourages following language rules that try to control how people write and talk).

A descriptivist is someone who uses language to describe how it is.


-Language is constantly changing and becoming more informal.
-If American English continues to flout the rules of syntax and grammar, it'll sow the seeds of it's own destruction.
-Language could disintigrate further.
-Language is described as unhealthy, poor, sad, depressing and fairly hopeless.
-American English has always been influential.
-The OED is based on American English.
-Language is influenced all the time, mainly by the media.

'Descriptivists (like dictionary makers) are content to describe language as it changes.'

'Prescriptivists like 'Simon' (The boss of OED in NY) believe you need prescribed rules to preserve language.'

'Discriptive linguists are a curse against their race' -says that they're uneducated.

Descriptivists describe their language use as 'non-standard'

'Language change happens and there's nothing you can do about it'

---------------------------

My view on descriptivists v prescriptivists: I think that it's right for language to be preserved to some extent, but you must allow for language change, especially as technology develops, there needs to be introductions of new words in order to label new inventions, language change is vital for socio-economic change, all the changes which occur in the world need to be described somehow. As for the quote 'Discriptive linguists are a curse against their race' - I think it's unethical to say something like that, everyone is entitled to believe in what they want to. Personally I believe that descriptivistism is the way forward although there needs to be some sort of preservation in order to keep the language pure and not lose it's latin roots which have made the English language so beautiful.

Dictionaries creative writing task:

What you selected and why?

• The first ever dictionary - it was an important event in the history of dictionaries.
• Use of language prior to the introduction of dictionaries- to show the impact that dictionaries had in society.
• Introduction of respect of the English language - accuracy became important.
• The 2nd dictionary - The Table Alphabeticall - to show advancements in dictionaries.
• The influence of Samuel Johnson - He outlined the layout of dictionaries that we all know today, all subsequent dictionaries have been made the same way as the one produced by Samuel Johnson.
• Oxford English Dictionary - It is the most respected English dictionary in existance, first produced in 1879 - since then, incredible advancements have been made, it's now available online and it's more accessible.

How you made it an article - style / techniques to engage the reader:

• Rhetorical question.
• 2nd person pronouns.
• Variation of sentence structure.
• Eye catching heading.
• Image of dictionaries to reinforce subject.
• Repetition of  'English'.
• Clearly defined paragraphs.
• Full of facts.

What you found most interesting.

Personally, I found the development of  dictionaries interesting because they have come so far since the beginning of production -ranging from just a compilation of words, which wasn't really accessible to anyone - to the likes of The Oxford English Dictionary which is easy to navigate through, is full of information and above all, it's easy to use.

Techniques to grab the reader's attention.

• Abstract nouns.
• 2nd person pronouns.
• Infinities.
• Emotive language.
• Rhetorical questions.
• Eye catching headlines.
• Varied sentence structures.
• Interrogatives.
• Exclamatories.
• Imperatives.
• Declaratives.
• Figurative language.
• Metaphors.
• Onomatopiea.
• Personification.

Dictionaries creative writing.

Have dictionaries always played a vital part in your life? Little do you know, they have actually been around for hundreds of years. Dictionaries were first introduced in 1582 – it was written by Richard Mulcaster who aimed to make the English language more accessible and respected in society.

Prior to the first dictionary, the use of the English language and spelling of words had no importance; it was simply a means of communication within an area and often wasn't used accurately. The compilation of words from the English language in one place was something of great significance at the time of production which lead to many advancements in the English language.

Inhabitants of England started to respect their language, the language developed over time, new words were introduced, meanings changed and language has become more sophisticated over time. Dictionaries meant that people started to value coherent expression and correct spellings, the changes in the values in society concerning language use were revolutionary.


Since the introduction of the first dictionary in 1582, Robert Cawdery compiled the first alphabetical dictionary which came about in 1604 and was titled 'Table Alphabeticall' - it contained about 3000 words and was something of amazement at the time of publication.


Dictionaries started becoming more prominent in society and increasingly influential in 1755, when Samuel Johnson created a dictionary which contained 40,000 words - his style influenced all subsequent dictionaries - In his dictionary, he listed the history of each word that was listed, showing all previous meanings and the origins of words; despite this dictionary being of great importance in society at the time, it was heavily criticized because it contained a lot of big words that people found hard to understand - at this time the intelligence of the English speaking population wasn't as advanced as it is in the modern day. 


In the history of dictionaries, the one which was (and still is) the greatest respected of all time is the Oxford English Dictionary which was an initial idea in the 1850's - and finally manufactured in 1879. The aim of the OED was to create a vast and extensive collection of English words ranging from Middle English (1150) onwards. The Oxford English dictionary has examined the history and meaning of every English word in existence to show how it has changed over time.


English language dictionaries have always been a part of all of our lives since the first ever publication, and as times have gone on, technology has advanced and dictionaries are now more accessible as the Oxford English dictionary is now available online, making using dictionaries more accessible to specifically the younger generation, who were the least inclined to use them beforehand. The OED was put online in 2000, and has proved to have many advantages - including: it's simplicity, ease of use, it's updated frequently and we can search for words, quotations and history of words easily. 

Since the first dictionary was produced in 1582, the English language has changed beyond belief; the earlier uses of English are unrecognisable to each and every one of us. Language change has recently caused some controversy when ‘older’ words were being taken out of the latest dictionary that is due to be published.