Dominant and muted group theory.

Shirley and Edwin Ardener made this theory and it has since been adopted by others e.g. Dale Spender and Cheris Kramarae. This theory allows us to see in more detail the way in which language is connected to social values.

They believe that in any culture there are more and less powerful groups. The more powerful social groups control the means of communication e.g. language,  TV, the press etc and therefore reflect the views of this dominant group.

Other groups are in various ways from using or are ignored by these means of communication. They thus become muted groups as they are denied means of expressing themselves.

Dale Spender applies this theory in her book 'Man Made Language':
"Males, as the dominant group, have produced language, thought and reality. Historically, it has been structures, the categories and the meanings which have been invented by males - though not of course by all males - and they have been validated by reference to other males. In this process woman have played little or no part. It has been male subjectivity that has been the source of those meanings, including the meaning that their own subjectivity is objectivity.

Research; Political correctness & language change.

Political correctness (PC) is a term used to describe language, ideas, policies, or behaviour seen as seeking to minimize offence to gender, racial, cultural, disabled, aged or other identity groups. Conversely, the term “politically incorrect” is used to refer to language or ideas that may cause offence.
It was a movement which was introduced in the 1970’s campaigning for the removal of offensive language in every day vocabulary.
There are 3 types of politically incorrect language categories:

1. Subtle:  Words like policeman, mailman, fireman; referring to all people as man; referring to an androgynous individual as he.  These exclusionary words subtly influence our way of thinking.  The first three imply that these are roles for men only.  This kind of language can keep women from being comfortable aspiring to these positions.  The other general references of man and he are simply inaccurate and unnecessarily exclusionary.  They imply that masculinity is the default and superior gender trait.
   
   
2.  Offensive:  Words like gay or retarded to refer to something undesirable; words like fag or retard to refer to people.  The first set shows how these descriptions inherently link certain types of individuals to anything bad by using terms that refer to them as insults for other undesirable concepts.  The second set is offensive because of the pejorative connotations implied by these slurs.  There are appropriate ways of referring to individuals that does not unnecessarily demean them.
   
   
3.  Blatant: The n-word to refer to black people or the c-word or b-word to refer to women.  This type needs little explanation.  These words are highly offensive and indicate a great deal of disdain.  They objectify and belittle entire groups of people based on one trait.

The terms ‘politically correct’ and ‘political correctness’, in the sense defined above, entered the language via the U.S. feminist and other left-wing movements of the 1970s. The use of ‘PC’ language quickly spread to other parts of the industrialized world. The terms had been used previously though. The previous meaning was ‘in line with prevailing political thought or policy’. i.e. the terms previously used ‘correctness’ in its literal sense and without any particular reference to language that some might consider illiberal or discriminatory.

In the early 1990’s, it was being used as a general tool for rendering language ‘neutral’ involving not only gender but any issues of representation in many social groupings.

Here are many examples of gender biased language – e.g. chairman used when the person chairing a meeting is female – that are linguistically incorrect (although some would dispute that too). This topic of gender neutrality is possibly the area that is most contentious. Some would argue that any use of the word ‘man’, e.g. manhole, is biased and should be avoided. Others are quite happy with female chairmen.

• Avoid language that addresses only one demographic group unless it is intended for that group only, such as using “men” when you mean “all people.” Accurate descriptions are the essence of ‘political correctness.’
  
  
• Avoid titles that are exclusionary, such as “Chairman” (use “Chairperson”); “Fireman” (use Fire Fighter); and “Stewardess” (use “Flight Attendant”).
  
• Use mentally challenged instead of words like ‘retarded’.

PC was heavily satirized and by the late 1990s the term had lost much of its credibility.

PC Term	Original Term	Comments
Chairperson	Chairman	Connotes masculinity – excludes the female gender.
Ms	Miss / Mrs	Alternative title for women  - indicates marital status of a women but not of a man ‘mr’.
Herstory	History	Discrimination of his/her.
Hearing impaired	Deaf	There was suggestion that there are negative connotations with the word ‘deaf’.

Avoiding sexism in the workplace:

Iloveindia.com:

·         Avoid derogatory expressions: e.g. handicapped / retarded.

·         Avoid jokes which conform to stereotypes: Whether these are racial / ethnic or gender stereotypes – e.g. the blonde girl walks into a bar…

·         Avoid gendered or sexist comments – e.g disregard for women ‘you can’t do it because you’re a woman…’

·         Avoid use of religious terms: These alienate other members of a group who aren’t part of that specified religion.

http://grammar.yourdictionary.com/style-and-usage/sexist-language.html:

·         Use humanity or the human race instead of man or man kind when referring to people.

·         If you’re talking about a hypothetical person, use person instead of man.

·         Use genderless titles – as referred to above.

·         Rework sentences in the plural to avoid gendered pronouns and possessive adjectives.

http://www.etsu.edu/scitech/langskil/grammar.htm

·         Avoid gender specific words:

Politically incorrect	Politically correct:
Business man	Business person
Camera man	Camera operator / photographer
Fireman	Fire fighter
Policeman	Police officer
Workmen	Workers

Conclusion:

To conclude, in contemporary society it is necessary to adapt your language in order to avoid offence. You have to be continuously conscious of the language you use and ensure that you avoid terms that could be possibly perceived as ‘politically incorrect’.

Essay.

Text E and F both express ideas and opinions on accents and language varieties although their ideologies are very different. Text E expresses hate and disgust for the working class accent, suggesting that it is undesirable by using adjectives such as 'riddled' or wincing' but emphasizes the value of convergence in social situations in order to present yourself in the best possible way dependent on the situation. Text F reinforces the importance and significance of received pronunciation, it suggests that the RP accent is the way forward and everybody is obliged to learn to speak properly. 


Text E is a newspaper article aimed at an upper-class audience, as suggested by the title 'I hate my son's working-class accent'. It is written in a formal tone with occasional colloquial terms thrown in for effect e.g. 'matey'; the effect of such colloquialisms helps the article seem more realistic and shows contrast to the RP accent. The purpose of the text is to inform the reader that whilst the RP accent is seen as 'higher' in society, the power to converge and appear 'classless' is the ideal attribute to have. The fact that Chloe's son is technically upper class but is able to converge and appear classless reinforces Peter Trudgill's research which suggests that the more formal the conversation, the closer to RP the language becomes. 


Text E uses a lot of techniques to present their ideas about accents, e.g. In the first sentence, there is  a dynamic, finite verb 'sent'. The effect of this is to show that sending her son to a private school was a process that was completed and should have had a significant effect on his accent. The use of 'sent' creates the feeling that it was a forced action and automatically engages the reader to find out more. 


The text also uses antonyms - 'help or hinder'. This shows that accents and language varieties have both advantages and disadvantages and it is possible to view regional accents positively, despite the fact that the text appears to disapprove of the working class accent. The antonyms help create a feel of balance when presenting their argument and allows the reader to make their own interpretations about the effects of accents and language variety. 

The text also uses a subordinating clause introduced by a relative pronoun 'who'; 'who has assumed a working-class accents for his or her own reasons'. The effect of this is to create a more personal feel and relate language change to a real situation; this is further reinforced by the use of 3rd person objective personal pronouns 'his or her.'


In addition, text E uses examples of Estuary English 'If ya know wha' I mean', it shows that Estuary English has replaced RP as the more popular dialect form. This reinforces Rosewarne's research that suggested that in time, RP will diminish with Estuary English taking its place. 

The fact that the text suggests that convergence is somewhat necessary in order to fit in expresses that language variation is becoming more accepted and valued in society - it is true that in contemporary society, people use their speech to show a sense of identity and individuality; this is reinforced by the fact that people in the mass media now feel comfortable communicating in their original accent and famous people in the media are increasingly asserting their identity by talking with their strong regional accents. 


Text F is an article from a website which offers communication skills training - the text expresses ideas that everybody should speak in the RP accent. It is aimed at a lower-class audience who it is assumed, possesses a strong regional accent.The article is written with direct mode of address, constantly addressing 'you'. The use of the 2nd person, subject pronoun makes the reader feel involved and entices them to  take the 'advice' given. The purpose of the article is to persuade the audience to learn to speak with an RP accent. 


The text repeatedly uses words and phrases with negative connotations .e.g 'holding you back' , 'not taken seriously' and 'frustrated'. The effect of these lexical choices suggests that anything other than RP is undesirable and should be amended. This is reinforced by the way in which RP is referred to, using positive predicative adjectives 'authoritative and professional'. The text supports the communication accommodation theory which suggests that people can and do alter their accent and language in order to achieve a particular effect. 


Text F uses a deontic modal auxiliary verb 'need' - 'we will explain the precise changes you need to make'. The use of such an obligatory term reinforces the necessity of action, which is what the text is trying to express, this creates a strong feeling of obligation and urges the reader to get involved in the actions being advised. 


In addition,the text repeatedly uses the phrase 'we will explain'. This phrase makes it seem as if the audience is uneducated and needs to be told what to do; to some, this may seem patronizing and unnecessary although it it put in for effect - the clause expresses certainty that they are there to help and reassures the reader that the 'goal' is achievable. 


In conclusion, both texts express clear ideas about accents and language variation and reinforce the prestige of RP but also acknowledge that language variation is everywhere and although some accents are seen as undesirable,it is necessary to use the accommodation theory in different situations in order to achieve desired results.

Section B; Language Discourses essay plan.

For English. 
Analyse both texts for lexis and semantic use; either comparing them both all the way through or writing about each text separately and comparing them in your conclusion. Use the PEED structure + relevant theory. 

3 paragraphs about text E.
3 paragraphs about text F.
& a paragraph to conclude.

In the first paragraph, do a GASP. e.g. Both texts express ideas and opinions on accents and language varieties, make sure you summarize both texts before you start, emphasising that they both express very different ideas about accents and dialects; include what you've learnt.

In all subsequent paragraphs, do your analysis on both texts, using PEED.
Picking out features and analysing them.

Include theories:
Giles – Capital punishment theory.
Trudgill – Attitudes to RP.
Rosewarne – Estuary English.
Petyt – Social class.
Jennifer Cheshire –Standard English.
Accomodation theory.
Convergence and Divergence.
People change their accents to seem more normal = e.g. Actors in Hollywood.
Identity. 

Geordie Accent spreading as a result of Cheryl Cole

Source:

http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1394577/More-Alreet-Geordie-spreading-north-prestige-Cheryl-Coles-accent.html

• According to research, the Geordie accent is spreading beyond its roots. 
  
• It is extending its reach across the north-east and into the north-west too because of the ‘prestige’ Newcastle is held in.
  
• He speculates that by 2030 Geordie could even have become one of ten regional accents that will dominate England.
  
• Other regional accents including Brummie and West Country are also said to be on the march as the hundreds of accents that once distinguished small towns and rural districts are gradually being subsumed into regional ‘super-accents’.
  
• The Newcastle influence can be felt more than ever before and there is evidence to suggest the accent is spreading north to Berwick and over to Cumbria.
  
  • The trend may be as a result of celebrities who make the accent popular.
    
  • Television has the ability to raise awareness of accents and they can slowly chip away at people’s consciousness and the odd thing starts slipping into their speech.
    
  • In inner cities the new dialect of ‘Jafaican’ continues to infiltrate the English language.
    
    
    
    

  
  
   

Paul Kerswill's predictions for likely accent change.

Source:

                                     http://www.economist.com/node/18775029

• The distinctive accents and dialects that characterise the different parts of the country.
  
• Some are spreading; some retreating.
  
• Some are mutating; some are even getting stronger.
  
• Overall, the pronunciation and prosody of spoken English seems to vary as much as ever across the country of its birth.
  
• Liverpool’s “Scouse” dialect is made up of throaty, guttural utterances that emerged from a mixture of Irish, Scots, Welsh and Lancashire accents in the late 19th century.
  
• For example, Liverpudlians tend to add a breathy “h” sound to words that end with a “t”, lending their distinctive intonation to “what”, “that” and “but”.
  
• Older Liverpudlians limit their use of it to words of a single syllable but younger ones have increased the individuality of the Scouse accent by extending it to “chocolate”, “certificate” and “aggregate”.
  
• Some aspects of south-eastern “Estuary English” have infiltrated northern parts—replacing the “th” in “think” and “nothing” with an “f” sound.
  
• Regional accents have largely survived in northern cities, thanks to a relative lack of immigration combined with chirpy civic pride.
  
• Mr Kerswill’s research finds that the distribution of accents across the country is undergoing big changes.
  
• While the Scouse accent grows stronger, variations of the north-eastern “Geordie” accent are not only retaining their distinctiveness but conquering fresh territory.
  
• The Brummie accent is spreading as its speakers move west to Wales.
  
• The traditional Cockney accent is fading and is no longer so common in East London.
  
• Mr Kerswill predicts that, by 2030, Cockney-influenced Estuary English will dominate most of the east and south-east, as Londoners move out.
  
• In the capital itself a new dialect, inspired by recent immigration, is emerging: “multicultural London English”, heavily influenced by Jamaican with undertones of west African and Indian.
  
  

British Black English (BBE)

• The language variety of black Americans or black English speakers.
  
• it is accepted that African American Vernacular English (AAVE) or Black English Vernacular (BEV) is a distinct variety of English (rather than a dialect).
  
• AAVE has its roots in the slave trade where people captured in various parts of Africa and with a variety of languages were forced to create a pidgin or creole.
  
• Eventually this incorporated elements of English so it could also be used to communicate with the slave owners. 
  
• Similar origins to Jamaican Creole spoken by Jamaican communities in London, Manchester, Bristol, Birmingham, Leeds and Nottingham.
  
• After the 1950's there was significant immigration to London as England welcomed workers in its post war expansion and rebuilding.
  
• British Black English speakers are finding their own voice in literature such as rap poetry and song.
  
  
• A lot of BBE is written phonetically. 
• "yuhself" for "yourself" 
• "dat" and "dem" for "that" and "them"
• "nuff" for "enough"
• "respek" for "respect".
  
  BBE has different grammatical constructions, observe the table.
  

• Aspect	Example	SE Meaning
  Habitual/continuative aspect	He be working Tuesdays.	He works frequently or habitually on Tuesdays.
  Intensified continuative (habitual)	He stay working.	He is always working.
  Intensified continuative (not habitual)	He steady working.	He keeps on working.
  Perfect progressive	He been working.	He has been working.
  Irrealis	He finna go to work.	He is about to go to work.

   
• BBE speakers also use 'ain't' when using negation. 
• It is seen a lot in American literature as it represent the way in which blacks' speak - giving them a sense of identity and significance.